Tools of the Astronomer :: essays research papers

The Telescope of the Astronomer   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Years and Years ago, astronomers didn't have the advantage of the telescope. They could only use their naked eye. It wasn't until Galileo first made a better telescope that it could be used for looking into space. Most every telescope you buy today is better than the one he used. These telescopes have revolutionized astronomy in general.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Galileo first took his telescope and looked at the sky he saw amazing things. He saw craters on the Moon, dark spots on the surface of the Sun, tiny moons moving around Jupiter. No one else had ever seen these things. With the modern telescopes we use today, we can see many many more things.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Light from planets, stars and galaxies spreads itself on Earth, and a telescope collects this light and lets us look at the object the light came from. Some telescopes, called refracting telescopes, collect and focus light through a glass lens. Another type, the reflecting telescopes, reflect light on a glass mirror. The bigger the telescope the more light it collects, giving us a better view of what we want to look at. Some don't have just one big mirror, it has many little mirrors that fit together like bathroom tile. With the help of a computer, these little mirrors work together like one big mirror. The Hubble Space Telescope is the largest orbiting optical telescope in history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The refracting and reflecting telescopes collect and focus visible light, which is light that we can see. There are also other types of light that we cannot see. Nowadays astronomers have telescopes to looks at different types of light. On Earth we can look at visible light and radio waves. A few of the very largest telescopes look for radio light. Other types of light, like X-ray light and ultraviolet light, can only be looked at from space, so astronomers have built telescopes in space that orbit the Earth. The most famous is the Hubbell Space Telescope.

Iso-osmolar Concentration of Carrot Cells Lab Essay

For a more thorough understanding of this lab introduction, the concepts of, iso osmolar, membrane, equilibrium, and concentration gradient evaluated. Iso osmolar can be known as the point in which the substance of experimentation faces no change despite the amount of solute inside the solvent( because the solvent and solute concentration is equal. This is where the line on a graph would cross on the x-axis). Selectively permeable membrane can be defined as a microscopic double layer of lipids and proteins that bounds cells and organelles and forms structures within cells and it controls what comes in and out of the cell. Equilibrium is the state of a chemical reaction in which its forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates so that the concentration of the reactants and products does not change with time. Before this experiment, we were educated on how osmosis functions. Osmosis is a process which molecules and water take to usually get through a selectively permeable membrane in order to reach equilibrium. It is a passive transport which requires no ATF and water moves from high to low water concentration. When osmosis is completed, there should be an equal concentration o water on both sides of the experiment. We have also learned about the iso osmolar point which is when the concentration of molecules are identical inside and outside. Also, we predicted that if the carrot sticks were placed into higher concentrations of sucrose solutions, then the sticks would loose more water. The concentration of particles inside the carrot cells will be found by having them placed into various different solutions with different sucrose concentrations. This will cause the carrot cells to either lose or gain water as the control tries to reach equilibrium with the solution. By measuring the carrot mass before the experiment and after they sat in the mixture for two days, we are able to observe the change in mass of the carrots. The amount of water the carrot lost or gained would show the percentage of mass change, which then we can use to conclude the concentration of particles inside the carrot. By finding the iso osmolar point, we are able to find the concentration of particles inside the carrot, because the iso osmolar point exhibits the solution that has the same concentration both in the carrot and out. The carrot sticks inside the 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.9, and 1.0M sucrose mixtures, will have water enter/leave them. In this experiment, the independent variable was the molarity/sucrose concentration of the solutions the carrot sticks were placed into. The dependent variable was the percentage change of mass for the carrot sticks. For about half of the experiments(4/6), water left the carrot cells causing them to loose mass because there was a uneven concentration of water inside the carrot and outside. In the sucrose solutions in which the carrots lost mass, there was more water inside the cell compared to the outside, causing the water molecules in the carrot sticks to move out into the solution as a result of osmosis. Generally, substances try to spread out and reach the state of equilibrium instead of being concentrated in one area. This is why water enters and leaves the carrots; a result of osmosis. Also, there is a solution of sucrose that is perfect for the carrots sticks, which would result in zero percentage mass change of the carrot. The solution, if it is found, is called the iso osmolar point, which there is no change because there is no concentration gradient. CONCLUSION The results of the lab were fairly accurate because there was no team in the class that had a hugely differing result in their experiment. The 0.0 M sucrose had a +16.71% change in mass as a class average and we had a +21.05% percentage change in mass. The initial mass was 1.9g and the final mass was 2.3g. This happened because the concentration of sucrose inside the carrot was higher than the outside of the cell. The water molecules moved a lot faster into the carrot than the sucrose particles attempting to move out of the sticks through the selectively permeable membrane, thus resulting in a greater mass than the original. The result showed the affects of osmosis, where particles moved to achieve equilibrium. The 0.2 M sucrose had a +8.37% change in mass as a class average and our group and +9.52%. The initial mass for these carrots were 2.1g and became 2.3g when the 2 days had ended. This happened because of the same reason for the 0.0 M sucrose, where the concentration of particl es were greater inside the cell compared to the outside of the cell, causing the water molecules moving into the cell through the semi permeable membrane. However, the solution the carrots were dunked into had a 0.2 M sucrose, unlike the first solution. This caused the mass of the carrot to change less because there was already some particles outside of the cell, allowing for equilibrium to become reached a lot faster than 0.0 M sucrose. In 0.4 M sucrose, there was a class average of -2.34% and we had -4.76%. The initial mass was 2.1g with a final mass of 2.0g. This was the first solution to have a negative percentage change in mass from the other six. There was a decrease in mass of the carrot because water had moved from the carrot sticks into the solution around is trying to achieve equilibrium. The water molecules had moved from high concentration into lower concentration, moving our of the carrot cells, causing them to lose mass. The 0.6 M sucrose solution had a class average of -11.84% change in mass while we had a -9.52% change in mass. The initial mass was 2.1g and the final mass was 1.9g. This occurred for the same reason that 0.4 M sucrose lost mass; the carrot sticks had a higher concentration of water compared to the solution it was in, causing it to lose water as the H20 particle slide out using the selectively permeable membrane. The mass loss was greater because the difference in sucrose levels were greater, demanding a greater amount of water from the carrots for equilibrium to be achieved. 0.8 M sucrose had a class average of -15.13% and 1.0 M sucrose had a -20.06% change in mass. These two also occurred because of the same reason 0.4 and 0.6 M sucrose lost mass. But, there was a larger amount of water needed to be transferred out in order to reach equilibrium the higher the sucrose level was. This lab proved the osmosis theory very well, because all six experiments had accurate results because osmosis had occurred in every one of them. Osmosis has the tendency for water to move through the semi permeable membrane from a lesser concentration to a higher concentration(of solute), thus equalizing concentrations on each side. The carrot stick lab showed water moving from inside the carrot to out into the solution because there was a higher concentration of sucrose outside the carrots. Trying to reach equilibrium, the water molecules transferred out into the solution. By graphing the data out, we were able to find out the iso osmolar point of the carrot sticks. We got the result of 0.4 M sucrose as the point. This number represents the sucrose concentration the carrots would already have equilibrium at, and no need for more osmosis because the concentration of sucrose and water is same or very close to same already. Thus, there wouldn’t be any or little change in mass of the carrot sticks. There were many possible sources of error in this experiment however, because first of all, the equipment were not brand new. The equipment we have used had been used of various types of labs over the years, and had the chance that they were not properly washed, leaving traces of precious labs. The solutions that got intermixed with these chemicals we were not aware of, could of changed the data and threw us off. There is no idea what kind of chemical was on the glasses, so we could of prevented this by experimenting with never used equipment, or by using very well cleansed ones. By having extra sucrose or any other substance on the beakers and tubes, the solution would have become more hypotonic, thus there would be more movement through the membrane and therefore more mass would be lost or less mass would have been gained. This is because the left over sucrose in the beaker adds to the concentration of solute. Another source of error could of happened while blotting the carrots onto a tissue after the two days of waiting time. The carrots that were blotted onto the tissue paper probably lost water, and depending on the strength of the person blotting the carrots, they may have squeezed them too hard, altering results from what would have come out. This could of been fixed by having the carrot sticks pulled out by tweezers instead of draining them and picking them up by hand. Finally I think another source of error was temperature, because the temperature day by day would differ. The changing temperature might have caused data to change as of if they were to be placed into a room of constant temperature of the experimenting time. ANALYSIS If you threw a carrot into a jar of pure H20, would the carrot shrink or swell? Explain. I think if we threw a carrot into a jar of pure H20, the carrot would swell up. The carrot cell is also a plant cell, which flourishes best in a hypotonic solution unlike animal cells. The carrot cell wouldn’t explode unlike animal cells because they are equipped with cell walls which the animal cells lack. The cell wall stops the cell from exploding inside pure water. Instead, they are happiest inside pure H20. They are at a stage called turgid which is their normal state. In winter icy roads are often treated with salt. Why is this likely to lead to the death grasses along the roadside? During winter, when the roads are treated with salt, the environment around it takes damage. The salt is used so that the salt would â€Å"melt† the snow . The snow would treat the salt and H20 molecules would stick onto the salt molecule, separating from their â€Å"ice box† affect and causing them to melt. However, the salt would also stick onto the grasses along the roadside and suck their life out, in simpler terms. The salt on the grass would have a 100% salinity while grasses in comparison would have a much lower salinity percentage. Because the grass would be a hypotonic solution compared to the salt, it would loose water. Thus the environment would be hypertonic. In effort to reach equilibrium with their surroundings, the grass would have the water pulled out of them towards the salt. Introduction MLA citation â€Å"Diffusion.† And Osmosis. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Jan. 2013. .

Romeo and Juliet Are Failed by Their Parental Figures, Discuss

Within the story of Romeo and Juliet the parental figures with responsibility over the children are not just the biological parents, however in the time when the play was written, this would have been normal for the rich, upper class families that the Montague’s and Capulet’s were. The parental figures over the two children change as their relationship between the two lovers develops and other events occur within their family lives.Juliet is the main focus of the changing in parental figures and this may be down to the failing of her by her nurse, at the start of the play the nurse is a vital role in her life, and Shakespeare shows this though Juliet confiding in the nurse. However, this is how the change occurs as we see Juliet feeling as she has been failed by nurse in these secretive chats. However Romeo remains with one strong figure in his life thought the play, Friar Lawrence, and although the outcomes of dramatic events this appears to remain the same thought out .Juliet and nurse have a strong bond at the beginning of the play, due to the relationship nurse agrees to help Juliet marry Romeo as nurse feels it is what Juliet really wants. However when lady Capulet wants Juliet to marry another man, late on in the play, the nurse advices Juliet to forget about Romeo and this is where the main start of Juliet feeling failed occurs.Juliet confides in her nurse for advice about Paris’ marriage proposal, but the trust between them breaks down when nurse says ‘I think you are happy in this second match, for it excels your first’ Juliet is angry at nurse for saying this as she wants the nurse to help her continue her love for Romeo. Feeling failed by Nurses lack of help she decides to go to Friar Lawrence for help, breaking her relationship with nurse.In this situation the Nurse may not have failed Juliet, as she only did what she thought was best for her, however through Juliet’s eyes, the nurse failed her by helping her with Romeo at the start but stopping when the situation developed. Juliet also feels let down by her father as he forces her to marry Paris even though she begs not to, and when she says ‘he shall not make me there a joyful bride’ meaning she will not marry Paris, he reacts angrily saying ‘Or I will drag thee on a hurdle thither. accusing her of treason for not wanting to do as her father commands of her. He thinks she should be proud and thankful that he has found her such a worthy husband. He is more concerned with her status, and that of his own, than he is her happiness. Juliet knows that she will get no help from her father in following her heart so she feels forced in to taking the desperate measure of faking her own death. Juliet is clearly let down by her father who should have listened to her and valued her happiness more.Romoe’s parents echo the relationship in the Capulet household between them and their children, as again their relationship is a distant one. So much so that Montague and Lady Montague don’t know what is wrong with Romeo when he is in depression over his unreturned love for Rosaline. However although they aren’t close to Romeo, he isn’t failed by his parents as there are still there for him ‘Could we but learn from whence his sorrows grow, we would as willingly to give cure as know. This is said by Montugue when he is asking Benvolio if he knows what is wrong with Romeo meaning he will put right what is wrong with Romeo if he knows what it is. So Friar Lawrence is a main parental figure though the play for Romeo throughout and for Juliet after her relationship with her nurse breaks down. Friar Lawrence really tries to help the couple. He marries them and helps Juliet develop a plan so that Romeo and Juliet can finally be together.He sends the ill fated message that never gets to Romeo and it is no failing of his that it does not reach him in time. However, despite all of his good i ntentions at the last he does fail Juliet, if he had not run away from the guards he may have been able to convince Juiet not to kill herself when she awakes from her drug induced death and finds Romeo dead beside her.In conclusion, Romeo and Juliet are let down by the parental figures in their lives. From the distant parents who care little for their happiness to the Friar and nurse who despite their love and devotion to the young people are ultimately not there for them when they need them most. Had the parental figures done a better job in supporting this young couple perhaps Romeo and Juliet would not be such a tragic love story.

Yellow colour precipitate Essays

Yellow colour precipitate Essays Yellow colour precipitate Essay Yellow colour precipitate Essay This is used in our experiment. 2,4-DNP reacts with the carbonyl group for a condensation reaction with the elimination of a water molecule. Take propanone as an example, The product formed is a yellow colour precipitate, so we can easily distinguish the presence of C=O group. This can also help us to identify the carbonyl compound as the precipitate collected has a sharp melting point. By using the melting point test, we can find out the melting point of the crystals formed and compare the result with a data book to find out the carbonyl compound. 2. Tollens reagent (Aldehyde only) The formula of this reagent is Ag(NH3)2+.As this reagent is not very stable, it must be prepared freshly in laboratory. To prepare the reagent, aqueous ammonia can be added in a continuous fashion directly to silver nitrate solution. At first, silver oxide will be formed and precipitate out, but as more ammonia solution is added the precipitate dissolves and the solution becomes clear as diamminesilver(I) is formed. At this point the addition of the ammonia should be stopped. This reagent is used in the silver mirror test. In this test, when there is the presence of aldehyde group, there would be formation of silver mirror.The equation of this reaction is as below [Ag(NH3)2]+ (aq) + e- i? Ag (s) + 2 NH3 (aq) RCHO (aq) + 3 OH- i? RCOO- + 2 H2O + 2 e- The aldehyde acts as an reducing agent where [Ag(NH3)2]+ was reduced to Ag(S) , the formation of silver mirror. This reaction is very useful to extinguish aldehyde from ketone as ketone does not show this reaction. Silver mirror formed in a flask 3. Fehling reagent Aldehydes are also oxidized by the Fehlings solution. This reagent is also prepared freshly in the laboratory. It is made initially as two separate solutions, known as Fehlings A and Fehlings B.Fehlings A is a blue aqueous solution of copper(II) sulfate, while Fehlings B is a clear solution of aqueous potassium sodium tartrate and a strong alkali (commonly sodium hydroxide). Equal volumes of the two mixtures are mixed together to get the final Fehlings solution, which is a deep blue colour. The Copper (II) ion is reduced to copper (I) oxide which is a red ppt, and in some cases, to copper metal (copper mirror). This is also useful to distinguish aldehyde from ketone and aromatic aldehyde as both ketone and aromatic aldehyde does not show any reaction. Using IR spectrumUsing the IR spectrum, if the compound contains a carbonyl (C=O) group, there will be a stretch in the wave number 1670-1820 with high intensity. Below is the IR spectrum of propanone Other preparation methods of ketones and aldehydes Kornblum-DeLaMare rearrangement The Kornblum-DeLaMare rearrangement is a rearrangement reaction in organic chemistry in which a primary or secondary organic peroxide is converted to the corresponding ketone and alcohol under base catalysis. Geminal halide hydrolysis The reactants are a geminal dihalide and water or a hydroxide. The reaction product is a ketone or an aldehyde.The first part of the reaction mechanism consists of an ordinary nucleophilic aliphatic substitution to produce a gem-halohydrin. Ruzicka Large Ring Synthesis Formation of large ring alicyclic ketones from dicarboxylic acids by thermal decomposition of salts with metals of the second and fourth groups of the periodic table (Ca, Th, Ce) Nef reaction Carbonyl compounds can also be formed using the Nef reaction. The Nef reaction is an organic reaction describing the acid hydrolysis of a salt of a primary or secondary nitroalkane (1) to an aldehyde or a ketone (3) and nitrous oxide (4).Precaution of this experiment 1. Concentrated sulphuric acid is highly corrosive and oxidizing, so it must be handled with care. 2. Acidified potassium dichromate is also very oxidizing, so it should also be treated carefully. 3. If any concentrated sulphuric acid or acidified potassium dichromate are in contact with our skin, we should wash it with running tap water immediately. 4. During the oxidation of propan-2-ol, safety goggles should be worn as this reaction is highly exothermic.Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromic_acid.

Jimmy Carter- Facts on the 39th President

Jimmy Carter- Facts on the 39th President Here is a quick list of fast facts for Jimmy Carter. For more in depth information, you can also read the Jimmy Carter Biography. Birth: October 1, 1924 Death: Term of Office: January 20, 1977 - January 20, 1981 Number of Terms Elected: 1 Term First Lady: Eleanor Rosalynn Smith Chart of the First Ladies Jimmy Carter Quote: Human rights is the soul of our foreign policy, because human rights is the very soul of our sense of nationhood.Additional Jimmy Carter Quotes Election of 1976: Carter ran against incumbent Gerald Ford against the backdrop of the United States Bicentennial. The fact that Ford had pardoned Richard Nixon of all wrongdoing after he had resigned from the presidency caused his approval rating to severely drop. Carters outsider status worked in his favor. Further, while Ford performed well in their first presidential debate, he committed a gaffe in the second concerning Poland and the Soviet Union that continued to haunt him through the rest of the campaign.   The election ended up being very close. Carter won the popular vote by two percentage points.  The electoral vote was very close. Carter held 23 states with 297 electoral votes. On the other hand, Ford won 27 states and 240 electoral votes. There was one faithless elector representing Washington who voted for Ronald Reagan instead of Ford.   Major Events While in Office: Vietnam War era draft evaders pardoned (1977)Panama Canal Treaty (1977)Camp David Accords (1978)US officially recognizes Peoples Republic of China (1979)Three Mile Island incident (1979)Iran Hostage Crisis (1979-81) States Entering Union While in Office: None Significance of Jimmy Carters Presidency: One of the big issues that Carter dealt with during his administration was energy. He created the Department of Energy and named its first Secretary. In addition, after the Three Mile Island incident, he oversaw stricter regulations for Nuclear Energy plants.   In 1978,  Carter  held peace talks at Camp David between Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin which ended in a formal peace treaty between the two countries in 1979. In addition, America formally established diplomatic relations between China and the U.S.   On November 4, 1979, 60 Americans were taken hostage when the U.S. embassy in Teheran, Iran was taken. 52 of these hostages were held for longer than a year. Oil imports were halted and economic sanctions were imposed. Carter staged a rescue attempt in 1980. Unfortunately, three of the helicopters used in the rescue malfunctioned, and they were unable to proceed. The Ayatollah Khomeini finally agreed to let the hostages go if the US would unfreeze Iranian assets. However, he did not complete the release until Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as president.   Related Jimmy Carter Resources: These additional resources on Jimmy Carter can provide you with further information about the president and his times. Chart of Presidents and Vice PresidentsThis informative chart gives quick reference information on the presidents, vice-presidents, their terms of office, and their political parties. Other Presidential Fast Facts: Gerald FordRonald ReaganList of American Presidents

Design evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Design evaluation - Essay Example In the United Kingdom today copper is a popular material used for facades, roofs and other external building elements on some of the most exciting modern designs. But this has not always been so. Historically, copper roofs several hun ¬dred years old can be seen on many British city skylines, although usually limited to churches, civic buildings and other important structures. During the twentieth century, copper roofs became more widely used for ordinary buildings – although many were of little architec ¬tural quality. Unfortunately, poor de ¬tailed design and installation techniques resulted in technical failures and the material fell out of fashion until the 1980s. Then, the copper industry intro ¬duced modern installation techniques to the UK – including the long-strip meth ¬od – and launched a promotional cam ¬paign to make architects aware of cop ¬per as a thoroughly modern architectural material. This ‘Copper in Architecture’ cam paign continues today.(Article by Tom Woolley in Sustain magazine, vol 3 no 3) It highlights the ability for copper sheets to be easily formed to suit any three-dimensional shape, making it a suitable weatherproof covering for virtually any external surface including roofs of all pitches, vertical cladding, gutters, soffits and even sculptural elements. Architects now recognise that it is one of the few materials that can offer complete mate ¬rial continuity and real freedom of form in architectural design.

The Pros and Cons of Search and Seizure Laws Research Paper

The Pros and Cons of Search and Seizure Laws - Research Paper Example The paper tells that sometimes, government representatives can search individual’s property usually regarded as private for constitutional reasons. Normally, the search happens when the person possesses or permanently lives in the area of search. When a representative of the government uses control over a person so he feels he cannot liberally leave or end the interaction with the representative there is occurrence of a seizure. However, a seizure occurs only when an individual yields to the government but in case the individual avoids detention or escapes, there is no occurrence of seizure. In the police department, Search and Seizure process is a famous occurrence. Since the process is legal, any official from the law enforcement department can carry out a search on one's individual property in case there is some kind of suspicion on the individual about involvement in any kind of criminal activity. However, several rules to observe when executing a search and seizure proced ure. In the United States Constitution, the search and seizure procedure is in the fourth amendment act. However, the society regularly violates this act because it additionally offers the affected citizens the assurance to ask for security against the seizure idea. The main reason for the Fourth Amendment was to shield the personal privacy and rights of American citizens. It states that every person has the right to be safe in their persons, papers, houses, and effects against insensible searches and seizures. In addition, this amendment explains the making and execution of specific warrants. This law is very important when tackling drug cases because the way the police discover and seize the drugs is important in any drug crime case. In addition, after a thorough investigation the search and seizure can be valid admissible evidence in court (California Criminal lawyers, 2010). It is evident that the African Americans experience an uneven share of arrests and prison sentences. Alth ough this could be because of differences in the disparity flows in crime rates across population groups, it could also be because of the discrepancy being an outcome of discriminatory targeting of suspects by the police. Since the fourth Amendment law says nothing about their exercise of enforcement judgment about the pool of potential suspects, the police can target whomever they desire. Consequently, the black drivers have no legal claim in case the police officers stop large numbers of black drivers allegedly for speeding but mainly examine the presence of drugs while stopping few whites (Law.jrank, 2011). The main reason why the courts invalidated vagrancy and loitering is the acts of racism together with broad police judgment. In order to fight these two vices, the modern government is turning its focus on suspects' privacy interests and taking on a fictive view of agreement that permits a good deal of informal coercion to happen. However, this method is not effective because the police have no authority like the one present in the old regime to help them carry out effective community policing (Stuntz, 1999). The major focus of the search and seizure law is to protect privacy. "Privacy" in this case does not mean the generalized right for exclusion but rather, the interest of being free from observation. Additionally, this law helps protect the community from the evil acts in which only the police can reveal and see but the ordinary citizen cannot hence the police are able to incriminate the criminals (Law.jrank, 2011). As Agarwal (2008) affirms, the major purpose of the enforcement of search and seizure laws is to protect the society against all insecurity and delinquency. The law of search and seizure helps to respect and protect the privacy of community members. In this regard, it helps in